Background: The aim of this study was to calculate the radiation amount exposed during percutaneous nephrolithototomy (PCNL) and to make the urologists and other staff sensitive about the radiation risk they were exposed to. Materials and Methods: We measured the radiation exposure during 114 cases of PCNL performed. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) were placed between the operation table and the patient at the location of kidney and gonads of patients to measure the radiation exposure of patients. TLD were placed at the head, neck, finger and the legs of the operating surgeon to measure the occupational exposure of the urologist. And also two dosimeters were placed to the inner wall of the operating room and two dosimeters were placed to the hall. Results: The mean fluoroscopy screening time was 2.18 minutes (0.15 - 6.12) and the mean operation time was 49 minutes (10-150). The mean radiation exposure for patients was 1.307 milisievert (mSv) at kidney location  and  0.562 mSv at gonad location  per  procedure. Surgeon exposure was 0.021 and  0.003 mSv  per  procedure for  hand and  leg, respectively. Radiation amounts exposed inside the room and by the surgeon were statistically significantly lower than measured radiation results compared to patient kidney. Conclusion:  According to our findings radiation exposure of the patient and the surgeon is below the annual occupational dose limit recommendations. However, for protecting from stochastic effects of radiation, fluoroscopy should be used as low as possible and lead aprons and thyroid shields must be worn to minimize the radiation exposure.

Background: Indoor and outdoor gamma radiation exposure levels were measured in a total of 360 randomly selected dwellings categorized as local, semi-modern and modern buildings across Ondo State, Nigeria to determine the annual effective doses. Materials and Methods: All radiation measurements were taken using a calibrated Kindenoo PG-15 Geiger Muller detector and a GPS for geographical coordinates of sample points. Equal number (360) sample point measurements were carried out for indoor and outdoor measurements. Measurements at each location point were performed holding the survey meter at 1 m above ground surface or floor to avoid unwanted effects of radiation from soil or building floor. The detector was also held at least six to seven meters away from buildings nearby in order to avoid unwanted effects of the building materials on outdoor measurements. Each measurement was repeated six times and the average was taken to represent the value for a sample point. Results: The average outdoor and indoor dose rates were determined as 263 ± 32 μSvh-1 and 213 ± 64 μSvh-1 respectively. The highest contribution to the total indoor dose was from the local buildings followed by semi modern buildings and the modern buildings contributed the least dose. The average annual effective dose was calculated as 1.56 ± 0.33 mSv, which is higher than the world average value (0.48 mSv). Conclusion: In view of the potential radiation resulting from building materials, comprehensive assessment of natural radiations in such materials is required.

Background: Breast cancer is a common disease in radiation oncology. We evaluated the radiation dose received by breast cancer patients, an often-neglected concern. Materials and Methods: The total effective radiation dose in 101 breast cancer patients was calculated by summing the effective doses of individual diagnostic imaging tests from the first hospital visit to the initiation of radiotherapy. The effective dose from general radiography and computed tomography (CT) was estimated using tissue-weighting factors and dose-length products. The effective dose from isotopes (18F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 99m         Tc-methylene diphosphonate) was estimated from the radioactivity of each isotope using dose coefficients. The patient radiation exposures were analyzed using radiologic records in the Picture Archiving and Communication System. Results: The median duration from initial imaging to the initiation of radiotherapy was 4.5 months (range: 0.7–13.4 months). When comparing the average effective doses associated with each diagnostic modality, CT, positron emission tomography-CT, bone scanning and radiography occupied 64%, 21%, 10% and 5% of the total effective dose, respectively. Comparison of the total effective dose according to clinical factors (age, AJCC stage, T stage, N stage, operation method, and cancer location) by multivariate analysis revealed that only T stage was significantly correlated with the total effective dose (p = 0.004). The median total effective dose was 71.5 mSv (range: 11.9–131.9 mSv). Conclusion: The radiation dose received from diagnostic testing in breast cancer patients is not negligible. We need to systematically collect and manage the doses received by patients from medical procedures.

Background: Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is now widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of gastrointestinal tract disorders. A large number of X-ray fluoroscopy and digital radiographs make ERCP as an interventional radiological procedure. In this study, patients' and examiner's entrance skin doses (ESDs) were measured during diagnosis and treatment procedures and patients' effective dose (ED) were calculated. Materials and Methods: Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) and dose area product meter (DAP) were used to measure ESDs of 30 patients and examiner and calculate patients' ED. Besides, to assess the effectiveness of an extra lead shield in decreasing examiner's ESDs, a lead cover was wrapped around the X-ray tube. The data were analyzed with IBM SPSS Statistics version 16 software. Results: The mean DAP and fluoroscopy time (FT) of the diagnostic procedure were 4.09 Gy.cm² and 32.4 s while those of the therapeutic procedure were 7.60 Gy.cm² and 76.2 s. The strong linear correlation between DAP and FT was observed for the therapeutic procedures but the diagnostic ones. The patients' mean EDs of diagnostic procedure (1.21±0.52 mSv) and therapeutic one (2.25±1.72 mSv) were calculated. Moreover, the shielding cover around the X-ray tube decreased ESDs of the organs of interest except gonads. Conclusions: The results reveal that therapeutic ERCP procedure imposes a greater radiation dose compared to diagnostic ERCP one. However, the doses of the patient and the examiner depend highly on examiner's experience, technical skills and knowledge in radiation protection. The results suggest that attempts to reduce radiation doses should be made.

Background: There are data suggesting that low dose radiation induced inflammatory reactions and changes of the immune system could be responsible for late circulatory and other chronic diseases. Chronic low dose radiation of occupationally exposed persons requires careful examination of their immune status. The purpose of this survey was to study some immunological parameters and serum proteins as suitable markers for screening cardiovascular diseases and chronic inflammatory state in NPP personnel. Materials and Methods: Lymphocyte populations were determined using four parameters by flow cytometer. Plasma levels of interleukin IL6, CRP and INFγ were determined by ELISA. Results: The main T lymphocyte populations did not show any differences to controls but there were trends of increasing activated CD3 HLA, CD4+25+ and CD8+38+ T lymphocytes and  CRP and IL6 markers. Higher, but not significant averages were recorded for regulatory T lymphocytes probably due to their role in preventing of atherosclerosis. No dependence was established of the studied parameters to cardiovascular or other chronic diseases, a weak correlation was only recorded for IL6 with autoimmune ones (p=0.042). The results show that the age, obesity, and other lifestyle factors, particularly cigarette smoking could be considered as cofounder for circulatory diseases. Conclusion: It could be assume that radiation induced aging of T cells and activation of inflammatory response are partly involved in the development of inflammatory chronic diseases as the more pronounced deviations in the parameters are observed with increasing age and cumulative dose.